Coherent Raman scattering (CRS) microscopy is a powerful label-free technique that enables high-speed imaging of a sample’s chemical composition. Here, Raman experts Giulio Cerullo and Matteo Negro discuss how technological advances in the field can boost the broad applicability of CRS microscopy, as both an analytical tool for online monitoring and control of the pharmaceutical production process, and in drug discovery.
Chemometric optical microscopy techniques provide numerous opportunities for the pharmaceutic industry, both in the manufacturing stage and in R&D for drug discovery and development. One valuable application is as process analytical technology for monitoring and control of the pharmaceutical production process. Due to their ability to rapidly map the spatial distribution of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and excipients within a tablet and to identify polymorphs, they are powerful tools for online quality control and real-time feedback during the production process. Chemometric optical microscopy can also support drug discovery, being able to image the uptake, retention and metabolism of drugs inside cells in an in vivo setting and in a time lapse fashion. Such information could become crucial in the drug development process, enabling removal of ineffective compounds from the pipeline early in the discovery cycle, resulting in significant financial savings.
This webinar showcases the Growth Direct System; an RMM (Rapid Microbial Method) that improves on traditional membrane filtration, delivering increased accuracy, a faster time to result, enhanced data integrity compliance, and more control over the manufacturing process.
Key learning points:
Understand the benefits of full workflow microbiology quality control testing automation in radiopharmaceutical production
Learn about ITM’s implementation journey and considerations when evaluating the technology
Find out how the advanced optics and microcolony detection capabilities of Growth Direct® technology impact time to result (TTR).
Don’t miss your chance to learn from experts in the industry –Register for FREE
Can’t attend live? No worries – register to receive the recording post-event.
Fluorescence microscopy is the gold standard of optical microscopy across life sciences, with unrivalled speed and sensitivity. However, it is invasive, requiring the addition of exogenous fluorescent labels, which significantly alter the structure and function of the target biomolecules, especially small ones, as is the case for many pharmaceutical compounds. These limitations motivate the development of label-free optical microscopy techniques, which avoid the use of exogenous labels. An ideal label‑free optical microscope should: i) provide high chemical specificity, enabling identification of a material’s composition for each pixel of the image (chemometric imaging); ii) offer high spatial resolution, well below the typical size (5-10µm) of a cell; iii) enable high imaging speed for large area screening.
Some label-free optical microscopies, such as optical coherence tomography and digital holography, do not offer chemical contrast. Vibrational microscopies, on the other hand, can determine the characteristic molecular fingerprint of a sample and thus yield chemically specific information in a direct and non-destructive way. They can be separated into two complementary approaches, both suitable for chemometric imaging: infrared (IR) and Raman microscopy.1 IR microscopy directly measures the absorption of vibrational transitions in the mid-infrared range (700-3200 cm-1, corresponding to 3-14µm wavelength). The large absorption cross section of vibrational transitions results in intense signals, making IR microscopy a powerful and non-destructive chemical identification method. However, conventional Fourier transform (FT) IR microscopes that employ globars suffer from low brightness sources and noisy and expensive detectors. While the use of tunable quantum cascade lasers has improved signal‑to‑noise ratio, still light diffraction and the low numerical apertures of IR objectives limit the spatial resolution to ≈5µm, which is comparable to the size of a cell and prevents the visualisation of intra‑cellular features.
Figure 1: Scheme of the different Raman processes.
Spontaneous Raman (SR) scattering microscopy2 is a powerful and simple technique allowing both high spatial resolution (≈400nm) and excellent chemical specificity, especially when combined with chemometric analytical algorithms. In SR a monochromatic laser at frequency ωp (‘pump’) excites the sample to a virtual state, from which it relaxes to the ground state scattering photons with lower frequency ωS (‘Stokes’). The inelastic frequency shifts Ω = ωp – ωS (Figure 1a) match the frequencies of the Raman active modes, which in turn reflect the molecular structure. SR microscopy suffers from the very weak scattering cross section, due to its incoherent nature, which is 10-12 orders of magnitude lower than the cross section for fluorescence. This gives rise to low acquisition speed, with pixel dwell times of approximately one second for a Raman spectrum, resulting in measurement times of up to several hours for a high-resolution image.
Coherent Raman Scattering (CRS) microscopy3 generates the Raman signal from a coherent superposition of the vibrations in the sample, illuminated by two synchronised ultrashort laser pulses of different colour, the pump (at frequency ωp) and the Stokes (at frequency ωS). When the difference between pump and Stokes frequencies matches a vibrational frequency Ω, all the vibrational oscillators in the focal volume are resonantly excited and vibrate in phase. This vibrational coherence enhances the Raman response by many orders of magnitude with respect to the incoherent SR process, decreasing the acquisition times from seconds down to microseconds per pixel and enabling mapping of large areas with high spatial resolution. The two most widely employed CRS techniques are coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS)4 and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS).5 In CARS (Figure 1b) the vibrational coherence is read by a further interaction with the pump beam, generating the anti‑Stokes frequency ωaS = ωp + Ω. While the CARS signal is easy to detect since its frequency differs from those of the pump and Stokes beams, it suffers from the so‑called non‑resonant background (NRB) generated by the substance under study and by the surrounding medium. The NRB does not carry any chemically specific information and distorts, and in some cases overwhelms, the resonant signal of interest. In SRS (Figure 1c) the coherent interaction with the sample induces stimulated emission from a virtual state to the investigated vibrational state, resulting in a Stokes-field amplification (stimulated Raman gain, SRG) and in a simultaneous pump-field attenuation (stimulated Raman loss, SRL). Since these signals are typically very small (10-4÷10-5 intensity variation), they are measured by high frequency modulation of the pump/Stokes beam followed by synchronous detection of the SRG/SRL with a lock-in amplifier. Despite this technical complication, SRS is the technique of choice because it is free from NRB signals and delivers a signal directly proportional to the concentration of vibrational oscillators in the focal volume.
CRS microscopies, and SRS in particular, are promising for applications to pharmaceutics, owing to their capability to obtain with high-speed chemometric maps the distribution of different components in complex heterogeneous systems. Proof‑of‑principle experiments have already been performed. Slipchenko et al. used SRS microscopy with backward (epi) detection to map with high spatial resolution the distribution of APIs and excipients in tablets of the drug amlodipine besylate, commonly employed to lower blood pressure, obtained from six different manufacturers.6 SRS microscopy imaged the uniformity of the pharmaceutical blend with high speed (104 higher than for SR microscopy) and high (sub-µm) spatial resolution. Imatinib and nilotinib are two tyrosine kinase inhibitors used for targeted cancer therapeutics. They are low molecular weight non-fluorescent molecules which are difficult to image with conventional microscopies. Fu et al. exploited the high sensitivity and speed of SRS microscopy to image the uptake and the intracellular distribution of these drugs, revealing that they accumulate outside the nuclei.7 They also performed time-lapse measurements of the drug uptake into the lysosomes, revealing the interaction of imatinib with the drug chloroquine within the cell. These results demonstrate the ability of SRS microscopy to study drug trafficking in living cells.
Until recently, SRS microscopy has been confined to specialised research laboratories due to the complexity of the required laser source. SRS in fact uses two synchronised ultrashort (few picoseconds) laser pulses at different wavelengths (the pump and the Stokes) superimposed on the sample to generate the coherent Raman signal. Current approaches use free-space solid‑state laser systems, such as an optical parametric oscillator pumped by a bulk picosecond Neodymium oscillator.8 This laser system, based on discrete, bulk optical components, has a large footprint, high cost and requires daily alignment. Nowadays this technology is being replaced by fibre lasers, which are intrinsically compact, turnkey and low cost. Suitably designed synchronised fibre lasers can generate the different colours required for SRS microscopy.9 Being fully integrated, they can be operated by non-expert users without requiring sophisticated knowledge of optics. Another limitation of SRS microscopes is that they typically work at a single frequency, requiring tuning to acquire a full vibrational spectrum. This drawback is currently overcome by broadband SRS microscopes which, employing multi‑channel lock-in amplifiers,10 acquire a full vibrational spectrum for every pixel of the image. Broadband SRS microscopes powered by fibre lasers, which are currently being developed, promise to be a game changer for high‑speed chemometric imaging. They are expected to have multiple impacts on the pharma industry, from in‑line monitoring and real-time feedback of the production process to understanding how small drug molecules interact with cells and tissues, with a great benefit for early-stage drug discovery processes.
About the authors
Giulio Cerullo, PhD
Giulio is a Full Professor with the Physics Department, Politecnico di Milano. His research activity focuses on ultrafast optics and spectroscopy and on nonlinear microscopy. He has published over 500 papers which have received over 30,000 citations (H-index 88). He is a Fellow of the Optical Society, of the European Physical Society and of the Accademia dei Lincei. He is the 2023 recipient of the EPS-QEOD Quantum Electronics Prize. He co‑founded two spinoff companies, Cambridge Raman Imaging and NIREOS.
Matteo Negro, PhD
Matteo has a PhD in Physics from Politecnico di Milano on ultrafast laser sources and spectroscopy and has worked as a Staff Researcher at the Institute of Photonics and Nanotechnologies of the Italian National Research Council (CNR-IFN). He then became Laser R&D Manager for Bios, an Italian company owned by Lumenis, a global leader in medical lasers. In 2020 he joined Cambridge Raman Imaging where he is Chief Executive and Chief Technology Officer.
References
1. Vanna R, De la Cadena A, Talone B, et al. Vibrational imaging for label-free cancer diagnosis and classification. La Rivista del Nuovo Cimento. 2021 Nov 22;45(2):107–87.
2. Krafft C, Schie IW, Meyer T, et al. Developments in spontaneous and coherent Raman scattering microscopic imaging for biomedical applications. Chemical Society Reviews. 2016;45(7):1819–49.
3. Cheng J-X, Xie XS. Vibrational Spectroscopic Imaging of Living Systems: An emerging platform for biology and medicine. Science. 2015 Nov 27;350(6264).
4. Zumbusch A, Holtom GR, Xie XS. Three-dimensional vibrational imaging by coherent Anti-Stokes Raman scattering. Physical Review Letters. 1999 May 17;82(20):4142–5.
5. Freudiger CW, Min W, Saar BG, et al. Label-free biomedical imaging with high sensitivity by stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. Science. 2008 Dec 19;322(5909):1857–61.
6. Slipchenko MN, Chen H, Ely DR, et al. Vibrational imaging of tablets by epi-detected stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. The Analyst. 2010;135(10):2613.
7. Fu D, Zhou J, Zhu WS, et al. Imaging the intracellular distribution of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in living cells with quantitative hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering. Nature Chemistry. 2014 May 25;6(7):614–22.
8. Ganikhanov F, Carrasco S, Xie XS, et al. Broadly tunable dual-wavelength light source for coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy. Opt. Lett. 2006;31:1292-1294.
9. Strale [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024Feb]. Available from: https://www.cambridgeramanimaging.com/strale/
10. De La Cadena A, Vernuccio F, Ragni A, et al. Broadband stimulated Raman imaging based on multi-channel lock-in detection for spectral histopathology. APL Photonics. 2022;7(7):93946
This website uses cookies to enable, optimise and analyse site operations, as well as to provide personalised content and allow you to connect to social media. By clicking "I agree" you consent to the use of cookies for non-essential functions and the related processing of personal data. You can adjust your cookie and associated data processing preferences at any time via our "Cookie Settings". Please view our Cookie Policy to learn more about the use of cookies on our website.
This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorised as ”Necessary” are stored on your browser as they are as essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. For our other types of cookies “Advertising & Targeting”, “Analytics” and “Performance”, these help us analyse and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these different types of cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. You can adjust the available sliders to ‘Enabled’ or ‘Disabled’, then click ‘Save and Accept’. View our Cookie Policy page.
Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. These cookies do not store any personal information.
Cookie
Description
cookielawinfo-checkbox-advertising-targeting
The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Advertising & Targeting".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-analytics
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent WordPress Plugin. The cookie is used to remember the user consent for the cookies under the category "Analytics".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-necessary
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary".
cookielawinfo-checkbox-performance
This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent WordPress Plugin. The cookie is used to remember the user consent for the cookies under the category "Performance".
PHPSESSID
This cookie is native to PHP applications. The cookie is used to store and identify a users' unique session ID for the purpose of managing user session on the website. The cookie is a session cookies and is deleted when all the browser windows are closed.
viewed_cookie_policy
The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It does not store any personal data.
zmember_logged
This session cookie is served by our membership/subscription system and controls whether you are able to see content which is only available to logged in users.
Performance cookies are includes cookies that deliver enhanced functionalities of the website, such as caching. These cookies do not store any personal information.
Cookie
Description
cf_ob_info
This cookie is set by Cloudflare content delivery network and, in conjunction with the cookie 'cf_use_ob', is used to determine whether it should continue serving “Always Online” until the cookie expires.
cf_use_ob
This cookie is set by Cloudflare content delivery network and is used to determine whether it should continue serving “Always Online” until the cookie expires.
free_subscription_only
This session cookie is served by our membership/subscription system and controls which types of content you are able to access.
ls_smartpush
This cookie is set by Litespeed Server and allows the server to store settings to help improve performance of the site.
one_signal_sdk_db
This cookie is set by OneSignal push notifications and is used for storing user preferences in connection with their notification permission status.
YSC
This cookie is set by Youtube and is used to track the views of embedded videos.
Analytics cookies collect information about your use of the content, and in combination with previously collected information, are used to measure, understand, and report on your usage of this website.
Cookie
Description
bcookie
This cookie is set by LinkedIn. The purpose of the cookie is to enable LinkedIn functionalities on the page.
GPS
This cookie is set by YouTube and registers a unique ID for tracking users based on their geographical location
lang
This cookie is set by LinkedIn and is used to store the language preferences of a user to serve up content in that stored language the next time user visit the website.
lidc
This cookie is set by LinkedIn and used for routing.
lissc
This cookie is set by LinkedIn share Buttons and ad tags.
vuid
We embed videos from our official Vimeo channel. When you press play, Vimeo will drop third party cookies to enable the video to play and to see how long a viewer has watched the video. This cookie does not track individuals.
wow.anonymousId
This cookie is set by Spotler and tracks an anonymous visitor ID.
wow.schedule
This cookie is set by Spotler and enables it to track the Load Balance Session Queue.
wow.session
This cookie is set by Spotler to track the Internet Information Services (IIS) session state.
wow.utmvalues
This cookie is set by Spotler and stores the UTM values for the session. UTM values are specific text strings that are appended to URLs that allow Communigator to track the URLs and the UTM values when they get clicked on.
_ga
This cookie is set by Google Analytics and is used to calculate visitor, session, campaign data and keep track of site usage for the site's analytics report. It stores information anonymously and assign a randomly generated number to identify unique visitors.
_gat
This cookies is set by Google Universal Analytics to throttle the request rate to limit the collection of data on high traffic sites.
_gid
This cookie is set by Google Analytics and is used to store information of how visitors use a website and helps in creating an analytics report of how the website is doing. The data collected including the number visitors, the source where they have come from, and the pages visited in an anonymous form.
Advertising and targeting cookies help us provide our visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns.
Cookie
Description
advanced_ads_browser_width
This cookie is set by Advanced Ads and measures the browser width.
advanced_ads_page_impressions
This cookie is set by Advanced Ads and measures the number of previous page impressions.
advanced_ads_pro_server_info
This cookie is set by Advanced Ads and sets geo-location, user role and user capabilities. It is used by cache busting in Advanced Ads Pro when the appropriate visitor conditions are used.
advanced_ads_pro_visitor_referrer
This cookie is set by Advanced Ads and sets the referrer URL.
bscookie
This cookie is a browser ID cookie set by LinkedIn share Buttons and ad tags.
IDE
This cookie is set by Google DoubleClick and stores information about how the user uses the website and any other advertisement before visiting the website. This is used to present users with ads that are relevant to them according to the user profile.
li_sugr
This cookie is set by LinkedIn and is used for tracking.
UserMatchHistory
This cookie is set by Linkedin and is used to track visitors on multiple websites, in order to present relevant advertisement based on the visitor's preferences.
VISITOR_INFO1_LIVE
This cookie is set by YouTube. Used to track the information of the embedded YouTube videos on a website.